IGCSE Physical Geography - Google Docs

The formatting may be strange from converting on google docs

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B0RgfrfwviNwbE5QQmdDTU9mMVE

IGCSE Case studies

Again the formatting may be a bit strange form converting it on google docs

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B0RgfrfwviNwNV8tcmQ3MHE2MnM

Economic development - Google Docs

Here is a booklet though some of the formatting is strange because I had to convert it into this format

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0B0RgfrfwviNwLWpOMkZkTjFfUE0

Competition for land *AS*

(Sorry I can't put pics up of the bid rent theory diagram, but it's simple to find)

·      There are numerous theory’s related to locational rent. Though the main assumption is the highest bidder will obtain the land. It is also assumed the highest bidder is the one that can obtain the most profit from the site.

·      Land competition is highest at the CBD, mainly because it’s accessibility and the shortage of space.

·      Businesses such as shops conduct business using a relatively small amount of ground space and due to the high rates of sales and turnover they can bid a high price for land (they use the land intensively). Usually offices are built in high rises above ground level shops.

·      The Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI): The most valuable site in the CBD.

·      Retailers compete with offices – which rely upon good transport systems and proximity to other commercial buildings

Urban trends and the issue of urbanisation

Urban trends and issues of urbanisation

Urbanisation: The process by which an increasing proportion (%) of the total population of a country lives in towns and cities.

Counter-urbanisation: The process of moving from an urban environment to a rural environment.

Gentrification: Where old substandard housing is bought, modernised and occupied by wealthy families.

Counter-Urbanisation in Sydney Australia

·      Many leave due to congestion, crumbling infrastructure, expensive real estate prices and soaring rent prices.

·      25% of Sydney residents are looking to leave

·      In New South Wales government created a $3.75 million campaign to lure Sydney residents to ‘Evocities’ such as Bathurst and Orange. The campaign included billboards along congested city roads.

·      The current population of Sydney is 4.5 million and is expected to reach 5.7 million by 2030.

·      A June 2020 survey said 50% of people needed an annual income $100,000 to live comfortably in Sydney. Only 15% of those surveyed had such an income.

·      In 2010 Sydney was one of the least affordable cities to live in the world.

·      Sydney’s annual house price in June 2010 was $700,000 compared to Evocity prices of $300,000.

·      60% of those that pay rent in Sydney pay over $350 per month – in Evocities only 20% pay this.

·      Evocities are said to have good education, healthcare, transport and opportunities for new businesses.

·      On average a Sydney resident only has 10% of their income left to spend on leisure – In Evocities it’s 25%.

·       A Large Evocity (Wagga Wagga) has around 58,000 people

Residential segregation *AS*

Residential segregation is separation of settlements on the basis of wealth, age and/ or ethnicity. Usually the poorest are attracted to cheaper areas and the wealthiest to new or well-preserved areas.

Explanation:

·      Usually divisions occur when less well off people are attracted to cheaper areas and wealthier people to newer cleaner areas that they can afford.

·      Social tensions may arise due to stark differences in lifestyle, religion or preferences.

·      Migrants and ethnic groups move to areas of existing communities and support networks.

·      Some may move to a particular area for a school zone. People that are successful may try to get their children into a better school.

·      Physical barriers may segregate e.g. hills or railways

Positive Impacts:

·      Different Migrants = new skills

·      Housing boom

·      Possible increase in tolerance

·      Segregation enables the celebration of difference

·      Segregation allows resistance to external threats

Negative Impacts:

·      Renting shortages

·      Racial conflict may arise

·      Increased intolerance may occur

·      Outcome of inequality

·      Leads to misunderstanding and mistrust

·      Leads to stereotyping

Statistics:

·      In the 2006 census mostly Europeans lived in Howick (77.6%) with the minority being pacific islanders at 2.3%.

·      In the 2006 census mostly pacific islanders lived in Clendon (52.4%) with the minority being African/Latin and middle eastern decent (1.1%)

·      In the 2006 census mostly Europeans lived in Glenfield (52.5%) with the minority being African/Latin and middle eastern decent (2.3%).

·      The highest Asian population is in Mt. Roskill (40%)

·      37% of Aucklanders are born overseas

·      Auckland has the 6^th highest rate of ethnic diversity in the world 

A study on rural settlements - Rural decline in New Zealand

A case study of rural settlement: Ohura, New Zealand

·      Ohuru is in King Country near Taumarunui

·      Population 150

·      Between 2005-2006 the population declined 3.5%

·      It has a cosmopolitan club and a school

·      Coal mine closed (though another may open with resource content)

·      Prison shut down and is now a backpackers

·      Dairy shut down after prison closed as it struggled to make ends meet

·      Jobs lost at mine after it was closed by the government

·      About 12 left at the primary school

2001:

·      Male bias from prison

·      20.3% are under 15

·      5.1% are over 65

·      25% have a post high school qualification

·      Mostly Maori and European

·      Median income of $10900

·      Unemployment rate 14.3%

·      42 families

·      73% have access to telephones

·      Average weekly rent payment in $60

2006:

·      Decrease of 57 people

·      Female to male ratio about equal

·      Percentage of European increases

·      Only 4% are from overseas

·      Unemployment rate down to 9.1%

·      Average income rose to $11500

·      Access to telephones dropped to 72%

Consequences of Urban Growth *AS*

Settlement: Consequences of Urban Growth

The rapid growth in cities in developing world has led to serious problems in providing housing, basic services and employment

Housing

·      Most housing in inadequate

·      Most must fend for themselves and survive by their own efforts

·      1/3 of urban dwellers in developing countries can’t find/ afford accommodation to meet basic health and safety standards

·      Many sleep on the streets, rent a single room or create shelters themselves

·      Some of the settlements are improved over time. The government adds sewerage, water supply, and electricity and refuse disposal to existing shanty-towns (cheaper than making new houses).

Services

·      Only parts of the city have access to infrastructure

·      Rubbish is rarely collected

·      Drainage is inadequate

·      Lack of electricity hinders industrial growth

·      Emergency services are unreliable

·      Shops may only carry essentials

Pollution & Health

·      Drinking water is often contaminated with sewerage

·      Disease is often caused by drinking water

·      Many are malnourished

·      Lack of pollution controls fuel the spread of respiratory disease

·      High IMF

Transport

·      Inadequate transport system

·      Road networks unable to deal with a large volume of traffic

·      High accident rates and pollution

·      Traffic mainly consists of old cars, vans, trucks, overcrowded buses, carts, rickshaws and bicycles.

Unemployment and Underemployment

·      New arrivals exceed the number of jobs available

·      Manufacturing industry is limited

·      Occupations limited to police, army, cleaners, security and the civil service.

·      Many work in informal sector

·      Informal jobs include street trading, food processing and local crafts

Problems resulting from rapid urban growth: Cairo, Egypt

Ø Cairo has a population between 6-12 million residents (unknown really as no real census has been conducted).

Ø Many live in the Medieval centre of town in: Overcrowded two room apartments in densely packed flats, additional roof top slums on top of flat top buildings and in the city of the dead (a Muslim cemetery estimated to hold 3 million people).

Ø Streets are narrow, noisy and polluted.

Ø Pollution comes from dilapidated 20^th Century sewerage systems and small factories located in backyards.

Ø Carts take rubbish to the edge of the city where it is sorted by people sifting for things to recycle for money

Ø By 2009 sewerage was improved, roads improved, metro was built, refuse collection began, and low cost apartment blocks were built. 

Loss of skilled workers

Brain Drain – New Zealand

·      1 in 8 emigrants from New Zealand leave for good

·      21% of under 30’s were most likely to leave New Zealand

·      May 2011 3300 left NZ

·      Around $4000 a year is claimed to be lost by each emigrant in tax

·      Many leave to Australia – generally for a warmer climate and better lifestyle

·      Skills Shortage is mostly: Teachers, medical staff, engineers and hospitality workers

·      There is an estimated 1 million New Zealander’s living overseas

·      24% of New Zealand born university graduates live overseas

Push from New Zealand	Pull to Australia
·      Long hours ·      Lack of roles being filled in critical positions ·      Student debt or other loans	·      Better climate ·      Better pay ·      Time to pursue other activities ·      New experiences

Rural to Urban migration

Rural to Urban Migration – China’s Hukou system

China’s population has grown to over 1.3 billion people. Most of the population is located on the Eastern seaboard of China where industrial activity has thrived. The number of migrants from rural western areas to the Eastern regions. To ensure structural stability in some regions the Chinese government implicated household registration in 1958. Without this system cities would be overpopulated and agriculture would be virtually abandoned - leaving many to starve without this policy. 

1950’s

·      Hukou system enforced from 1953-1976

·      Limited mass migration from rural to urban

·      Ensured enough labour for state run businesses

·      Police would round up those without proper registration and deport them to rural areas

·      People were not allowed to have a job without a permit

1960’s

·      The Great Leap Forward caused famine among rural residents, many fled to urban areas where food was rationed. Rural Hukou residents often starved to provide for the country and high taxes meant there was little money left to pay for food. From this over 30 million perished between 1958-1962; 95% of these were rural Hukou residents. This showed how different Hukou’s could affect people.

·      In the late 1960’s the ‘back to the village’ movement shifted 20 million from urban areas to rural areas.

1970’s

·      Increased industrialisation led to rapid urbanisation

Impact of Rural-Urban Migration

·      Loss of agricultural land

·      Strain of housing, public utilities and transport

·      Many illegal Hukou residents were unable to gain access to services such as education and many lived in slums

·      Over supply of labour (5.2 million are unemployed in the major cities)

·      Environmental concerns and planning concerns to accommodate the influx of migrants

Causes

·      Scarcity of productive land

·      Rising cost of agriculture

·      Over supply of farm labour (100 million surplus)

·      Government policy – between 2002-2007 300 million were planned to move to 10,000 new towns

·      Pay is more attractive e.g. average income per year is $5000 in Sichuan (rural) and in Shanghai it is between $15000-27000 per year